Bilingualism of Two Indonesian Siblings Living in Australia

Attitude is one of the most prominent issues in bilingualism. It becomes crucial and interesting because it is related to how speakers preserve their language to avoid language attrition and to maintain their established language competence. This study investigates the attitudes of two Indonesian siblings, a 19-year old and a 24–year old, who migrated to Australia with their parents in 2002. This study looks into their attitudes towards their Indonesian L1 after living for 11 years in Australia. An interview was conducted along with a guided questionnaire with both participants. The results revealed that their attitudes toward their Indonesian L1 are different regardless of having had the same treatments from their parents. The younger sibling seems to be more reluctant to use his Indonesian L1 and now, he has difficulties in speaking in Indonesian. Accordingly, the possibility of his partial loss of his L1 was indicated. The results further show that their different attitudes are one of the factors that foster the language loss suffered by the younger participant, especially the loss of vocabulary knowledge. The study also found some demographic factors such as the age of onset and the level of education when he started studying at an Australian school that may have influenced the difficulties that the younger participant has with production of his L1.


INTRODUCTION
Since olden times, people have been migrating from one place to another.Moreover, in this modern world, where movement has become faster with the help of advanced transport systems, people are able to move around the world more easily for access and interaction.Language is one means of communication for people to interact with each other.As a consequence of rapid migration, the possibility of a person having mastered more than one language becomes more common.That dual language ability is called bilingualism.Thus globalization is leading to an increasing number of bilinguals.Furthermore, as an extension of this phenomenon, the numbers of multilinguals and polyglots are also increasing.
In this study, attitude is the main factor that is going to be investigated based on the researcher's recognition of the attrition of the participants' L1.In more general understanding, in their study of attitudes to language, Cargile, et al. (1994) follow the interpretation of attitude to language as a tendency or reaction as to whether to be active or to be passive to a situation, an object or an event.In the bilingual context, an attitude has been linked with many aspects including the loss of language within an individual or a community (Hamers & Blanc, 2000).Attitude is intricate; Baker (1992) argues that in the life of a language, the regression, preservation, loss or even the death of it appears to be strongly related to attitudes.Therefore, studies of attitude should be done if we want to promote maintenance of a language in order to reduce language loss or attrition.
With the tendency for language attrition that the participants initially showed, this study aimed at investigating the attitudes of the participants towards Indonesian as their L1 and their use of languages that they have mastered in their daily communications.In this study, the researcher looks at the condition of two participants who are siblings living in the same house.They have been raised by the same parents, and they have had the same treatment in terms of language exposure since they were born.By contrast, most previous studies have had participants with different background experiences from their families or people in their environments and different exposure of their L1 due to those different conditions Nevertheless, the focus of this study is about how attitudes are related to language attrition and fluency in two siblings who have been raised by the same parents with the same treatment towards their first language, thus it aims at revealing the differences in the participants' attitudes, and factors that affected them and the effects of these attitudes on their present L1 fluency.The significance of this study is to contribute to the field of bilingualism specifically to the study of attitudes and its relation to L1 maintenance and to L2 acquisition.
Accordingly, this research aims to answer these three questions: 1.What attitudes towards their Indonesian L1 are different in the two siblings?2. What makes them different in their attitudes towards their Indonesian L1? 3. What are the effects of the differences in their attitudes on their present L1 fluency?

LITERATURE REVIEW
Numerous studies have been done with regard to the attitudes of bilinguals toward their first language.While discussion and debate about bilingualism still occur, there are other phenomena that appear to affect the ability of one person to have two languages.A study conducted on language shift from a minority language in Botswana called Ikalanga to Setswana or English by Letsholo (2009) revealed that the attitudes of the speakers such as negative feelings toward using their own mother tongue in front of non-native speakers become the most profound reason for why the language shift started with these people.In that study, the people did not use Ikalanga even in any situations when they were communicating with people with the same mother tongue.Cherciov (2012) reveals that there is not a straight correlation between attitudes and first language attrition through quantitative data measurement but he found prominent connections between the two through qualitative data analysis that was gained through interviews.Many studies of language shift (Schupbach, 2006;Wegmann, 1989) have found that first language shifted at the second generation.This means that the first language is not spoken anymore after the second generation.
Moreover, Schupbach (2009) relates language attitudes of the parents with the transmission and shape of language in the family.Letsholo (2009) has shown that the loss of Ikalanga amongst people in Botswana and its shift were caused by their attitudes such as the limited use of Ikalanga compared to English or Setswana amongst native speakers.Moreover, the finding showed that the attitudes of the native speakers of Ikalanga such as reluctance to use the language due to their negative feelings about using the language caused them to use other languages even with people who also spoke Ikalanga.Chin and Wigglesworth (2007, p. 67) state that for some reasons, people try to maintain contact with a language but find that their language ability is not the same as the first time they learned it.Another case might be that some people move abroad and so to some extent, they lose their proficiency in the first language.However, whether attitudes are influenced by other factors within the lifespan of an individual and what factors significantly affect attitudes are some questions that have not been answered by previous studies.
In this study, the participants were at different ages when they first arrived in Australia.In the studies of second language acquisition, many have found that age or maturity constraints significantly affect the success of second language acquisition and that there are sensitive periods in language acquisition (Ortega, 2009;Long, 1990).One of the studies focusing on grammatical features of the second language found that adults will not become native-like or near-native-like at a later age of second language acquisition (Johnson & Newport, 1989).
However, in their replication study of Johnson and Newport (1989), Birdsong and Mollis (2001) further found that native-like second language achievement was also variously gained amongst adult learners (ages of arrival from 16 to 39 years old) although theirs was not so solid as the achievements of younger learners (ages of arrival from 3 to 15 years old).Another study focusing on pronunciation (Snow, Burns & Hoefnagel-Hohle, 1977) found that younger participants (aged 3-15 years old) developed their pronunciation to be near native-like after a learning period of only one year.In these other studies, critical periods are not directly related to attitudes, but they were considered as important factors because of the demographic conditions of the participants (age of onset) and their L2 proficiency in general.

Participants
The participants of this study were two male university students who are siblings.One of the siblings, named Adi, is the younger one and is the main focus of this study; his elder brother is going to be addressed as 'the elder brother' in this paper.They migrated from Indonesia to Melbourne when Adi was 8 years old.He was studying in grade 2 of primary school when he started to have full contact with English, without any prior knowledge or practice of it beforehand.Adi was 19 years old when this data was collected.There are four people in his family.The elder brother is now a 24 year old graduate student.Both parents are now permanent residents in Australia and had been working in Melbourne for 11 years when this data was collected.Although both Adi and his elder brother are bilinguals, the researcher has focused on Adi, because he is known as an Indonesian who rarely speaks Indonesian in most of his communications even with his Indonesian friends.The researcher found his case very interesting to be investigated in depth.Cherciov (2012) conducted a study to test which methodological approaches, such as C-tests, verbal fluency tasks, sociolinguistic and personal background questionnaires, native speaker ratings, and interviews, are more appropriate for testing the impact of attitude on L1 attrition.She reported that an interview was more flexible in capturing the nuances such as the relationship between emotional factors and language proficiency, whilst a questionnaire-based methodology would give categorized answers, which would not cover in detail the experience of the participant(s).Choice of methodology should be appropriate based on the number of participants and their homogeneity.
As the aims of this research are to reveal the relationship between attitude and attrition of the L1, both a questionnaire and an interview were conducted for this study.By using the questionnaire, more structural and focus-based questions could be answered by the participants.Conversely, the interview could probe more into the complexity of emotional and experiential conditions that the participants have towards their first and second languages.

Procedures
A guided questionnaire was used to interview the participants.It had 13 main questions with some sub-questions for some of the points.It was designed to investigate Adi's attitude toward his L1 Indonesian in order to gain input regarding his reticence to use his L1.The questions on the questionnaire were adapted from Chin and Wigglesworth (2007, pp. 271-273, 297).
A guided questionnaire is one of the direct methods listed by Baker (1992) for investigating the attitude of a bilingual towards a speaker or a situation.This method is used to ask specific questions about someone's attitudes toward a language, a language group, or other factors related to a language.
The interview with Adi was conducted in a quiet room in a library at the University of Melbourne.The duration of the interview was 30 minutes and 18 seconds.The interview was recorded but the extracts from the interview are not going to be transcribed completely.However, the report of the interview and some of the most prominent extracts which have been transcribed will be elaborated on in these discussions.The interview with Adi's brother was not conducted face to face due to various factors.In order to avoid bias in the answers, the interview with the elder brother was conducted at a different time.The guided questionnaire was answered through an online chat and following the chat he sent the completed questionnaire by email.The duration of the chat was 30 minutes and it was recorded in the form of a written transcript.Lastly, social network messages were used to get further details of his answers in the questionnaire.

Adi's Attitudes
In the interview, Adi responded according to his attitudes on how he used Indonesian and English (see Table 1).The significant periods of the use of both languages in Adi's life could be divided into two.The first occurred when he was still in Indonesia starting from the year he was born in 1997 until the year when he migrated to Australia in 2005.The second period occurred after arriving in Australia.To conclude, from the time Adi arrived in Australia, when he had a full exposure to English for the first time at school, his use of Indonesian has been decreasing gradually from time to time until the present.

The Elder Brother's Attitudes
In his responses, the elder brother explicitly showed his attitude and the use of his Indonesian and his English for all of his life.He does not have a critical period which affects his attitude and use of Indonesian and English in his daily life.When he moved to Australia, he already had a high degree of exposure to English but at the same time, he still enjoys using Indonesian.Moreover, he still uses Indonesian on a daily basis up till the present.In conclusion, the elder brother's views and attitudes toward his L1 have not changed through the years of transition after moving from Indonesia to Australia and until the present.From the answers, he is comfortable and confident in using his L1.

The Differences in Attitudes and the Use of Both Languages
After living for 12 years in Melbourne, Indonesian is still the language both parents use to communicate with Adi.However, Adi stated that his mother spoke Indonesian more often than his father.In response to that, regardless of whether to his mother or to his father, Adi answered mostly in English.His mother rarely responded back to him in English but his father often practiced it.Adi said that his father spoke more English with him compared to his mother because his English was more fluent than his mother's.The interviewer found an interesting pattern of language use in the family; all of the family members communicate differently with each other.Adi and his brother do not speak Indonesian at all in their daily conversations with each other at home.
When Adi was a child, before eight years old and they were still in Indonesia, Adi did not really communicate with his grandparents because they did not speak Indonesian or English.The grandparents speak a Chinese dialect (Hokkien) which Adi did not understand at all.Therefore, Adi said that their communication was broken because of the language barrier.According to the pattern of communication because of the language, it can be concluded that: there was only one major language used in the family (Indonesian) before migration.In addition, there is a Chinese dialect (Hokkien), which Adi's grandparents used to use to communicate with Adi's parents.The pattern changed when the family migrated to Australia.The parents use Indonesian to their children and the children respond differently.Adi responds mostly in English while his brother responds mostly in Indonesian.The brothers use English to communicate with each other.The parents use Indonesian to communicate with each other.
In his responses, Adi mentioned that he does not read anything in Indonesian, not a single book, newspaper, magazine or even comic.He rarely writes anything in Indonesian.On the other hand, he reads in English all the time, mostly academic writings and texting, plus everyday casual writing such as texting and chatting.He writes in English to communicate with people on a one on one basis.Adi's friends are mostly balanced between native Indonesians and native Australians.He does not communicate a lot with other international students.However, he also mentioned that since he started university, he has begun to communicate with some Indonesian students who are struggling with English and then he has to speak in Indonesian, which he said he was not comfortable with.He feels that he is better in speaking English rather than Indonesian.The same applies to his writing.
Table 3, which follows, compares the attitudes of Adi and his elder brother to both their L1 and their L2.The answers from both of them show their significantly different attitudes towards their L1 and L2.Some differences are also shown from the use of L1 and L2 on a daily basis after their arrival in Australia.

Aspects of Different Attitudes toward L1
From the responses, some aspects are assumed to be the causes of their different attitudes towards their L1, Indonesian, and their L2, English which occur between Adi and his brother.
The most prominent possible reason of the differences is related to the age of onset when Adi and his elder brother were initially exposed to English.The family migrated to Australia in 2003.Adi was 8 years old at that time.On the other hand, his elder brother started 6th grade of primary school in Australia at age 12 years old.Both of them had full contact with English for the first time in Australia.Further in the interview, the elder brother stated that it was difficult for him when he had to start using English for the first time in Australia.He was 12 years old with excellent native Indonesian skills.Differently, although Adi said that he experienced the same for the first time in an Australian school, he could exceed and acquire English at ease afterwards.Based on studies that have focused on relations between age and language attainment in the critical period (see Johnson & Newport, 1989), second language learning is better when started as young as possible.A study conducted by Snow, Burns and Hoefnagel-Holbe (1977) indicated that children aged 3-10 years old were able to exceed adolescents and adults in particular second language measures on a daily basis (e.g.pronunciation and storytelling).Early ages language attainments have been revealed as the most critical time for a language learner to sound more native-like.Moreover, Chin and Wigglesworth (2007) state that much research (Johnson & Newport, 1989;Long, 1990) has found that age of learning a language is crucial in relation to the proficiency level of various skills in the language.However, motivation and social identity are other factors that contribute to the success of second language learning and these are factors which generally exist in adolescents and adults.Therefore, the elder brother succeeded in learning English as his L2 although it was not as fast as Adi did, but he also did not easily lose his Indonesian L1.
Secondly, there is also a higher possibility of how social life affects attitudes toward the use of a language.Adi's friends equally consist of Indonesians and Australians.With his Indonesian friends, he also uses English to communicate.
Excerpt 1 Question : "What language do you speak with your close friends?I mean friends around you?" Adi : "Here?Yes, a little bit in Indonesian but mostly in English."Question : "In English?Even with Indonesian friends?"

Adi
: "Yes, because they are mostly the ones that grew up here, so they are a lot like me, my friends are some locals and some Indonesians." On the other hand, the elder brother managed to be involved in the Indonesian community until his college life.One of the communities that he is actively involved in is AIYA (Australia-Indonesia Youth Association) where he keeps on using his Indonesian to socialize.
The last aspect that might have influenced their attitudes is their individual personalities or interests.Adi does not have any interest in language or to dig more into social and cultural societies.On the contrary, based on his choice of communities that he has been involved in, the elder brother has a lot of interest in language, culture and social studies.

The Effects of the Differences in Attitudes to the Present L1 Fluency
In the last two questions, two personal questions about attitudes toward the L1 were asked of Adi and his brother.The first question was about how Adi would foresee his Indonesian L1 in the future.The purpose of this question was to investigate Adi's attitude to his L1 maintenance.He said that in the future when he has his own family, he will use only English to communicate with his children and with his wife because English is the language that he feels comfortable to use.Adi feels that his L1 vocabulary knowledge is decreasing as he has lost much Indonesian vocabulary which now makes it difficult for him to produce good spoken Indonesian.This attitude is considered as one of the attitudes that occur without conscious awareness.With this attitude, it does not necessarily mean that he does not like his L1.However, this will influence his own situation in the Indonesian community and finally lead to the loss of his language within that community.Attitude is a crucial power that enfolds an individual's experience as a bilingual and it contributes to the group community for the maintenance of a minority language.Therefore, the collective attitude of a minority group community is very important in strengthening the maintenance of their language.
Based on the time of onset when both siblings migrated to Australia, Adi who was not yet fully exposed to his L1 before he was 8 years old is more vulnerable to the loss of his Indonesian, especially if he chooses not to use his L1 in his daily communications.When he first arrived in Melbourne, although he did not speak English at all, he told the interviewer that it was not difficult for him to learn English.
Excerpt 2 Question : "You know your brother speaks more Indonesian, what do you think about it?"Adi : "He started school here when he had finished his 6th grade while I started in the second grade so I still had 4 more grades to go in my primary.And at that time, I had to survive in an English-speaking environment because when I came here I did not speak English, hardly anything.And everyone in my environment spoke English so I didn't have any choice but to pick it up, basically."Question : "And you could manage to learn it up quickly?"

Adi
: "I didn't realize it at the time but when I'm thinking about it now I thought it was that quick.My brother, he grew up longer in Indonesia so the language is sort of in-built and it makes it harder to forget compared to me." As far as he remembers, Adi said that it was difficult for him when he went to school for the first time and everybody used English.However, he also remembers that he learned very quickly afterwards.From the researcher's perspective, Adi's pronunciation sounds very native-like in the recording.The sounds that he produced were similar to native English speakers.Ortega (2009) argues that in terms of second language ultimate attainment, most learners who begin learning L2 before puberty will acquire native-like morpho-syntactic and phonological competences.Younger age is also found as positively related to second language mastery.In other words, the younger the age of onset, the higher the level of L2 mastery will be acquired.Birdsong and Molis (2001), however, have written that there is a difference in the period of mastering of a second language amongst different first languages.In their study, Spanish speakers acquired English faster when compared to Korean or Chinese speakers at the same age of onset, this is understandable since Spanish uses the Roman alphabet the same as English whereas Korean and Chinese have their own separate systems for writing.In relation to L1 Indonesian and L2 English, a study on this aspect has not been found but the results are likely to be similar to the results from the Spanish speakers.
The advantage that Adi had when he managed to quickly acquire English became a disadvantage at the same time when it is related to the loss of his Indonesian.Based on Chin and Wigglesworth (2007, p. 78), younger children at the age below eight or nine years old would have greater risks of losing their first language, as many studies have found.In addition, the first language lost is at risk further in younger children with reluctant attitudes toward it on a daily basis, or with very limited support from the society.
Quite similar to Adi, the elder brother had been in a full contact with Indonesian before they moved to Australia.He was 12 years old when they arrived in Australia for the first time.With full Indonesian that they used when they were still living in Indonesia, the elder brother also mentioned that he did not speak English at all when he moved to Australia.Sharing similar experiences, Adi and the elder brother learned English from the very basic level in Australia.However, Adi started when he was 8 years old while the elder brother started when he was 12. This, surprisingly, did not make any significant differences to Adi and the elder brother's English proficiency.The only difference is on the use of their Indonesian L1 that the elder brother uses on a daily basis which has become the most important factor for him to avoid L1 attrition.
The very last question given to Adi is about his opinion on which language is more or less important for him in the future as an Indonesian bilingual.His answer is not surprising.He said that it was not a must and it would not be necessary for an Indonesian to speak Indonesian.However, at the end of the interview, he stated that it will be shameful if an Indonesian does not understand Indonesian at all.This could be a threat that promotes a language loss, particularly the spoken mode.Therefore, it is also not surprising if Adi has lost most of his spoken Indonesian and now finds it difficult to speak in Indonesian.
Surprisingly the elder brother views Indonesian in a different perspective: Excerpt 4 Question : "It is about the question that asked the language that's less important.So, for your children in the future, would you put Indonesian or English as their priority?"Elder brother : "Of course Indonesian because I know my children will naturally use English.So I will prioritize Indonesian." The elder brother's attitude toward Indonesian is different from his brother's.It can be concluded that this attitude is the factor that could enable Adi's elder brother to maintain his L1 at the present time and into the future.

CONCLUSION
Adi is a robust example of a case of language attitude which can occur in the field of bilingualism.However, every case might be a special case which contributes new insights that have not been revealed in other previous studies.
In summary, there are some important points that can be drawn from this study.Although it is supported and affected by the environment and the community, attitude is an individual choice of how to react to something.Two people that have been raised in the same family, with the same parents, with the same communication patterns and treatments, can however, have attitudes toward a language L1 that might not necessarily be the same.In addition, the development of a negative attitude to an L1 can lead to attrition of the L1 in the short or the longer term.Secondly, the support of the community is very important for language maintenance.The positive attitudes of parents alone do not seem to be enough to prevent the loss and negative attitudes of their own child to his L1.
In addition to these important points, this study has some limitations.An in-house survey was not conducted in order to find out about the interactions between the family members.In addition, in this study, Adi's L1 loss was not tested.Therefore, parts of language skills or parts of the language which have possibly been lost from Adi could not be known from this study.Future studies of these aspects could be very interesting.
Lastly, in terms of the methods, a triangulation type of methodology could very usefully be tried in a future study.Moreover, concerning verification of their intentions for their future country of residence, it appears from the interviews that all four members of the family intend to stay living in Australia and do not intend to return to live in Indonesia but this has not been verified in this study nor has the effect of intended future country of residence on attitudes to an L1 been examined.

Table 1 .
Results of the questionnaire given to Adi.

Table 2 .
Results of the questionnaire given to Adi's elder brother.

Table 3 .
Different and similar attitudes of Adi and his elder brother towards their Indonesian L1 and English L2.