Grammatical Deviation in President Jokowi’s Speech to the APEC CEO Summit

Grammar constitutes not only part of one’s knowledge but also a central component of verbal communication for people who are using language. When speakers use language without using grammar (i.e. the rules regarding how words alter their form and combine with other words to create sentences), it can cause a muddle and also possibly, problems in communication such as grammatical deviation. This present study examines a speech at the APEC CEO Summit in 2014 by President Joko Widodo, from the perspective of grammatical deviation with two foci, via: to find out the types of grammatical deviation spoken by the speaker by employing Leech’s views (1969) and to identify the speaker’s social status by employing the theory of Trudgill (2004). The result from this study shows that some of President Joko Widodo’s speech deviated from the rules, although based on Fromkin et al. (2011) when a person knows a language; he knows the sounds, words and the rules of their combination.


INTRODUCTION
Language can be viewed both as the center for studies in linguistics and as a system of communications for people that consists of the structured arrangement of sounds into larger units, i.e. morphemes, words, sentences and utterances as well.In language use there are undeniably some components of the linguistics subfields used to construct sentences like phonology (studies regarding the sound system of language), morphology (studies of the word formation process mainly through the construction of morphemes), and syntax (the study of sentence structure).Thus, the process of forming a sentence in a language goes from a string of sounds, to vowel with consonants and vice versa, as phonology elements form morphemes which constitute the minimal grammatical unit as a constituent in the field of morphology.Morphemes are divided into two types: free and bound.A free morpheme (FM) is defined as a complete word and it can have an appropriate meaning: think, write, move etc.Whilst, bound morphemes (BM) essentially constitute affixes, prefixes or suffixes, i.e. incomplete words which have to be attached to another FM to create proper sense such as the word movement which possesses FM move and BM -ment.The BM -ment can't provide obvious sense unless it is joined with FM move.
The combined morphemes, either FM with FM or FM with BM, will shape phrases, clauses or sentences.Meaning (semantics) in a sentence will be obvious and be very easily understood when the morphemes are arranged into a phrase, clause or even a sentence which is correct grammatically.According to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002, p. 1) grammar is a set of rules for combining words/FMs into larger units and sentence as well and is a central component of language.Table 1 shows a clear sample of a sentence concerning the usage of rules.
Table 1.Example of sentences with and without the rule of grammar.

No Sentence Time tense Grammatically correct
Grammatically incorrect (1) They will leave the house next year.
Simple Future √ (2) A lot of people rebel against the harsh new government yesterday.

Simple Past √
(3) The kid always bring some food to his school every day.

Simple Present √
A sentence traditionally encompasses two main constituents: the subject and the predicate.The predicate as a constituent of a sentence consists of a verb and any other elements of the sentence, like a noun, adverb etc., which is apart from the subject Greenbaum and Nelson (2002, p. 21).Hence the rule of making a positive sentence in the English language ordinarily has the basic word order: subject (S) + predicate (P) as in the three sentences above.Based on Table 1, the sentence in (1) is grammatically correct, i.e. there is no deviation of grammar because the units (morphemes) order is grammatically correct, but the sentence in (2) is ungrammatical because the morpheme 'rebel' in the predicate is incorrect.It has a deviation, breaking a rule.The verb utilized in sentence 2 'rebel' must be in the past form.The FM morpheme 'rebel' in the sentence should become 'rebelled'.There is also a break in the rules of grammar in the sentence (3) that belongs to the simple present time type.The deviation in grammar is there is no BM, bound morpheme -s for the verb 'bring'.A final -s should be attached to FM 'bring' because the subject in the sentence 'the kid' functions as the third person singular which according to the rules of grammar, the -s form is used for a subject that has the third person singular that is 'he, she, it' so the base form at the present time of 'bring' obviously needs to have the suffix -s added to become 'brings'.Moreover, there is no BM -es in FM food as a plural noun.
Determiner 'some' shows a form which expresses more than one in which suffixs or -es is normally necessarily to be attached to FM 'food' which would then become 'foods' but 'food' is a plural noun so no -s is needed.Thus the sentences in (2) and (3) contain deviations or they break the rules of grammar.Deviation from a norm or rule of grammar also can be called foregrounding (Simpson, 2004, p. 50).Leech and Short (2007, p. 39) also declare that foregrounding constitutes a deviation from the language code itself, they say that foregrounding might be a breach of some regulations of the English language.Hence for the sentences in (2) and in (3), it can be stated that the morphemes formation in those sentences deviates from rules of grammar and hence the grammar in those sentences are not correct.Fromkin et al. (2011) assert that grammar also describes the knowledge that speakers have regarding the units and rules of their language, i.e. the rules for combining sounds into words that is recognized as knowledge of phonology, rules of word formation that is recognized as knowledge of morphology, rules for combining words into phrases and phrases into sentences that are recognized as knowledge of syntax, then rules for assigning meaning that is recognized as knowledge of semantics.This gives us the thought that speakers of the English language are also highly advised to utilize the rules in ordering the words in their sentences so that their well-arranged sentences will produce obvious meaning and would not have deviations in their sentence structure.Leech (1969)  In line with the research questions above, the objectives of this research are to find out the types of grammatical deviation in the speech by Joko Widodo, and to find out the extent of those grammatical deviations that can assist people to identify the speaker's social status.Hopefully the results from this study are useful as an informative input for students of language to improve their knowledge of language, especially about grammatical deviation.

Linguistic Deviation
Based on the research questions, the theoretical framework proposed by Leech (1969) has been taken, due to the fact that grammatical deviations play a key role in the present study, the researcher requires a deeper and closer look at the concept of linguistic deviations in general and particularly in morphological and syntactic deviations as part of grammatical deviation, the breaking of rules in forming words and sentences.Leech proclaims deviations with a concept of foregrounding in his book 'A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry'.
Foregrounding can be interpreted as deviation from a linguistic norm.In other words, an expression or the usage of language which deviates from the norms is called a foregrounding deviation.The concept of foregrounding also provide a description of the three main language levels, they are: realization, form, and semantics.Realization is realized by phonology and graphology.Form comprises grammar and lexicon, and semantics deals with meaning (denotative or cognitive).Besides, in his opinion, as listed earlier, there are eight types of linguistic deviation namely: lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, phonological deviation, graphological deviation, semantic deviation, dialectical deviation, deviation of register, and historical period.As stated by Leech (1969), grammatical deviation contains two features, they are morphology and syntax.Syntactic deviation is divided into two main types, bad or incorrect grammar and syntactic re-arrangement or called hyperbaton.As shown by the title, this study is concerned with deviations that occur within morphology and syntax as its focus of research.

Morphological Deviation
According to Leech (1969), morphology is defined as "the grammar of word" a technical term with a predictable Greek etymology, that comes from morphe meaning 'form' or 'shape'.Some scholars who are interested in linguistics have provided various definitions for the term morphology; they all have a similar explanation: morphology is a sub-field of linguistics that is about the study of words and morphemes.In the opinion of Haspelmath and Sims (2010, p. 11), morphology is "the study of the combination of morphemes to yield words".Carstairs-McCarthy (2002) defines morphology as that part of grammar that deals with the structure of words and the relationships between words involving the morphemes which compose them.While Aronoff and Fudeman (2011, p. 2) state that morphology investigates words, their internal structure, how they are formed and studies morphemes.
Accordingly morphology examines or analyses words and/or morpheme as the smallest meaningful grammatical unit which cannot be broken down into smaller unit.As a sample of analyzing morphemes, the word enlarges in the sentence: 'He enlarges his vocabulary every day by reading a lot' comprises three morphemes as can be seen in the Figure 1, which follows namely: en-, 'large', and -s.Here both prefix en-and suffix -s constitute the bound morpheme (BM) that provide incomplete meaning because they cannot stand alone as a single word, whereas 'large' is a free morpheme (FM), which, as a single word, can give us complete meaning.'Enlarges' functions as a verb in the sentence, 'He enlarges his vocabulary everyday by reading a lot', deviation will occur when the BM -s in the verb is dropped, to be 'enlarge', or when the BM -s in the verb is changed into a different BM like -ed, to be 'enlarged', the units ('enlarge' or 'enlarged') grammatically do not fit the tense type of the sentence i.e. simple present which truly necessitates that the suffix -s/-es has to be added to the verb if the subject functions as the third person singular in the present tense as 'he, she, it'.This indicates that both dropping and changing a morpheme in the verb will bring on grammatical deviation chiefly in the formation of the word 'enlarges' in the sentence, 'He enlarges his vocabulary everyday by reading a lot'.In other words, there will be morphological deviation in the sentence.Accordingly the meaning of deviation in morphology is to add a morpheme incorrectly or to drop a necessary morpheme from a word.Morphemes according to Brinton and Brinton (2010, p. 83) have a number of different types depending on their meaning, there are lexical and grammatical morphemes.
Lexical morphemes (LMs), a term which expresses lexical or dictionary meaning, are a group of units which can be categorized into four major units: nouns (N), verbs (V), adjectives (Adj) and adverbs (Adv).These units are labeled the major lexical categories or major word classes.Furthermore they constitute open word class to which BMs can be added to become new word classes, for example the FM 'teach' as a verb when it is attached to the BM -er will become 'teacher' which functions a noun.LMs are also frequently called content words.Grammatical morphemes (GMs) are as minor class of word which is often labeled as function words.They are also called the close word class since GMs have a very limited number of very ordinary meanings to which BMs cannot be added, such as prepositions (Prep) e.g.'in', articles (Art) e.g.'a', demonstratives (Dem) e.g.'this', conjunctions (Conj) e.g.'and', auxiliaries (Aux) e.g.'may', and so on.To sum up there are two types of words: LMs & GMs.Also, it seems that there are other terms for LMs: major categories, major word classes, open word classes or content words which comprise N, V, Adj and Adv.Another term for GMs is the minor (word) categories, the minor word class, the close word class or the function word which consist of Prep, Art, Dem, Conj, Aux, etc.

Syntactic Deviation
Syntax has to do with the pattern of grammar, of how words are arranged within sentences (Leech, 1969).The common sentence, with subject and predicate as its main constituents, has seven essential rules for structuring its elements (Greenbaum & Nelson, 2002, p. 33)  Hence, the description of syntax is how words are put together to build phrases, how phrases are put together to build clauses and how clauses are put together to build sentences (Miller, 2002).In regard to syntactic deviation, Leech (1969) divides it into two sorts: bad or incorrect grammar and syntactic rearrangement (hyperbaton).
Hyperbaton is a form of syntactic displacement where words (morphemes) or phrases that belong jointly in a sentence are separated.It is used to emphasize the meaning of a sentence and typically emphasizes the first word in the sentence.Thus when the normal order of words in a sentence is significantly changed, it is called hyperbaton (Baldick, 2001).In the words of Sygue (2010), hyperbaton is also used for rearranging a sentence to change the meaning or to gain attention.Besides the syntactic re-arrangement allows for key words to be placed for maximum emphasis which is usually at the start or the end of a sentence.
Moreover hyperbaton may be categorized into three: anastrophe, hypallage, and hysteron proteron.Anastrophe is a kind of hyperbaton that departs from the usual word order or it is the inversion of the usual syntactical order of a pair of words; usually done by placing the adjective after the noun, e.g.'our children cute'.Actually, in this phrase, the rule for the placement of an adjective is commonly before a noun: 'our cute children'.Hypallage is connecting to an exchange of elements in a phrase or sentence so that a displaced word is in a grammatical relationship with another which it does not rationally qualify, e.g.'The smell brings the well-known breezes'.Logically the syntactical order of a pair of words in the sentence is having the breezes bring wellknown smell.Hysteron proteron is where the natural or logical order of events is reversed, as in 'they die, they faint, and they fail'.The logical order of the events is thus, 'they fail, they faint, they die' not 'they die then they faint then they fail'.This shows that hyperbaton constitutes of the rearrangement of a phrase or of a sentence by altering the position of a phrase (some morphemes) of a sentence into a place such as to alter the position of some elements in a sentence, e.g. from S+V+O: subject + transitive verb + direct object ('We have brought much money') to become O+S+V: direct object + subject + transitive verb ('Much money we have brought').This is from one of seven essential rules in structuring elements in a sentence in which the subject and predicate are as its main constituents (Greenbaum & Nelson, 2002, p. 33).The elements S+V+O: subject + transitive verb + direct object constitute the elements belongs to important rules for structuring elements in a sentence.So the alteration to O+S+V is considered as an incorrect syntactical position; that is why hyperbaton can be considered a deviation of syntax.
One important feature of grammatical deviation is the case of bad or incorrect grammar in a sentence of 'I doesn't like him' (Leech, 1969).It should be, 'I don't like him'.This sample confirms that mis-matches between the subject and the main verb are seen as syntactic deviation or incorrect grammar.Grammatical deviation can indicate the social class of a person.Trudgill (2004) asserts that words, grammar and pronunciation can tell us about a person's social background, e.g. the use of grammar forms patterned in Standard English and non-Standard English.Here are the examples: Table 2.The use of grammar forms patterned in Standard English and non-Standard English.
Non-Standard English Standard English (4) I don't want none.
(5) I don't want any.Them people over there.
Those people over there.They done it yesterday.
They did it yesterday.
Sentences in ( 4) are examples of sentence which are not based on the rules of grammar such as 'none', in 'I don't want none', is a pronoun which stands for a negative noun phrase and is used in a positive form not a negative form, e.g.'None of you can take the food'.So the sentences in (4) refer to ungrammatical sentences or non-Standard English forms and people who use this kind of sentence in speaking or writing will normally be categorized as being in the class of uneducated people.Meanwhile the sentences in (5) are Standard English forms.People who use the sentence in ( 5) are categorized normally as in the class of educated people.Trudgill (1974, p. 17) defines Standard English language as follows: … that variety of English which is usually used in print, and which is normally taught in schools and to non-native speakers learning the language.It is also the variety which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts and other similar situations.(Trudgill, 1974, p. 17) From Trudgill's statement it can be concluded that standard language is usually used by people who are not native speakers.Besides, standard language is also usually used in speaking by educated persons.In conclusion, when a person knows a language, he knows the sounds, words and the rules of their combination (Fromkin et al., 2011).This is intended that a person has to know the rules when she or he uses a language, e.g. the rules like suffix -s or -es must be added to the verb when the subject of the verb is in the third singular person, as in 'She works hard or he watches television'.If suffix -s in the verb 'work' is dropped it will be 'she work'.Whereas, the rule for the verb in a sentence which has a subject that is in the third singular person, e.g.'she/he', is that the verb must be attached by suffix -s or -es.If the verb has no suffix -s such as in 'she work', it is regarded as a deviation of the rules.

A Brief Account of the Speaker
President Joko Widodo, most Indonesian commonly calls him Jokowi or Joko, has come from rags to riches.He was born on 21 June 1961 in Surakarta, also recognized as Solo, which is a city and an historic royal capital in Central Java on the Java Island of Indonesia.His father had a small business selling second hand timber on the river bank in Solo.After graduating from senior high school at SMA 6 Surakarta, he continued his studies at Gadjah Mada University (UGM) in Forestry.After graduation in 1986, he started working for the paper mill, Kertas Kraft Aceh, organizing timber supplies from the highlands of Central Aceh.Soon after getting married to his high school sweetheart, he moved back to Solo.With his savings he started a small business making furniture.He became a successful furniture maker and exporter with several furniture factories in Central Java.After he became the chairman of the local furniture manufacturers' association, he was very successful that people nominated him to stand in the election for Mayor of Solo.He won the election and became a popular Mayor from 2005 to 2012.
In 2012, Megawati Soekarno Putri, the former President of Indonesia and leader of the large PDI-P party (PDI-P: Partai Demokrasi Indonesia-Perjuangan) persuaded Jokowi to turn for election as the Governor of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia.In 2012, he was elected as Governor.However, he had only led Jakarta for two years (2012)(2013)(2014) when Megawati once again commanded him to be a Presidential candidate with Jusuf Kalla as his partner candidate for Vice President.In July 2014, Joko Widodo was elected to become the seventh President of the Republic of Indonesia until present.Independently wealthy, he created a new version of Indonesia as a Maritime nation, striding into 21 st century on the back of industry and technology, creating new programs for health, education and ending poverty that cover even the poorest of families, in addition he has strengthened the fight against corruption at all levels.

METHOD
With regard to the nature of the present study, the analytical descriptive method for conducting a study was selected as the best strategy to look at the subject in question.The samples extracted from Joko Widodo's words were analyzed to identify grammatical deviations on the basis of the framework proposed by Leech (1969) as well as to identify the speaker's social status by utilizing the theory of Trudgill (2004).
In addition, the data for this study includes President Joko Widodo's English language speech (words, phrases, and sentences) which he gave as a speaker at the 2014 APEC CEO SUMMIT in Beijing on November 10, in China.This data was acquired by downloading the recorded words delivered by President Joko Widodo from www.youtube.com,which were then transcribed.In order to seek answers to the research questions, all of what he said had been analyzed to find any examples of grammatical deviation.
In collecting the data, some steps were taken.Firstly, the transcribed speech was examined to look for data related to grammatical deviation and to comprehend the content of the transcribed speaker's speech, which was related to the focus of this study.Secondly, notes were taken to highlight the data related to topics of the study.It was done to sort and filter the data in order to obtain the important data.Thirdly, notes were classified based on the research questions.This was done to sort the data, filter it and classify it properly according to the research questions for the study.Lastly the data is interpreted and discussed.The interpretation of data was done to make it meaningful.Then the discussion was done to clarify the analysis of the data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the light of Leech (1969), there are two types of grammatical deviation: morphological and syntactical where the latter is concerning with bad or incorrect grammar.The purpose of this study was to explore patterns of deviation in President Widodo's speech and what these patterns can inform us about the use of morphological and syntactic deviation.

Examples of Morphological Deviation
As mentioned previously, both adding and dropping a morpheme incorrectly from a word are called deviations in morphology.Some of President Jokowi's (PJ's) words are in the samples below: The bold items in the above samples show where the speaker broke the rules by adding a bound morpheme incorrectly as in sentence (a), as well as by dropping a bound morpheme from a word as in the sentence (b), (c), (d) and (e).A closer look at these samples seems to show that by adding morpheme -s to LM 'year' as a noun, by dropping morpheme -s to LM 'show' as a verb, to LM 'island' as a noun, to LM 'investor' as a noun, and by dropping morpheme -ed to LM 'stop' as a verb lead us to deal with these items as morphological foregrounding, thus: To put the BM -s in the FM 'year' as in sentence (a)* constitutes wrong addition of the BM because the 'a' before the noun 'year' shows it is a singular noun which does not need to have the BM -s.The sentence in (b)*, (c)*, and (d)* are missing BM -s in FMs 'show', 'island', and 'investor', as well in (e)* there is no BM -ed on the FM 'stop'.

Samples of Syntactical Deviation
When one of elements of sentence is rearranged or the position of one of the elements of a sentence is altered it is a deviation in the sentence structure or hyperbaton.There are seven essential rules in structuring elements in a sentence with subject and predicate as its main constituents (Greenbaum & Nelson, 2002, p. 33), the elements S+V+O: subject + transitive verb + direct object constitutes the elements belonging to the basic rules for structuring elements in a sentence.When the position of one of elements of a sentence is altered into another place, it will be a deviation or hyperbaton as shown in the following sentences from President Jokowi: (f) Some subsidy we want to channel to the fishermen to give them boat engine, to give them refrigerator.(g) Some subsidy we want to channel to the health program, the education program.(h) The subsidy we want to channel to the infrastructure.
The word order of three sentences above is O+S+V+A: direct object + subject + transitive verb + adverbial complement.However, the word order should have been S+V+O+A, such as in the following examples: (f)* We want to channel some subsidy to the fishermen to give them boat engine, to give them refrigerator.(g)* We want to channel some subsidy to the health program, the education program.(h)* We want to channel the subsidy to the infrastructure.
If the sentence is rearranged as 'the subsidy we want to channel to the infrastructure', which has O + S + V + A word order, the sentence spoken by Joko Widodo will draw great attention to itself.The morphemes or phrase that is out of order is chiefly emphasizedin this regard, i.e. 'the subsidy'.He wants the audience at the APEC CEO 2014 meeting to be aware of the point of the hyperbaton in the sentence.He did it to emphasize that 'we want to channel the subsidy' as opposed to the food, the cloth or anything else 'to the infrastructure'.When the foregrounding performed by this speaker morphologically and syntactically in his speech is associated with Trudgill's (2004) view, then that the person's words, pronunciation and grammar on the use of grammar forms patterned in Standard English and non-Standard English can provide information about one's social standing.
Furthermore Trudgill (2004, p. 46), in his book with the title 'Dialects Language Workbooks' informs how rules of utilizing bound morpheme or final -s for certain subjects in simple present tense in Standard English.He declares: The rule that they have to learn is that present-tense verbs don't take any ending except in the third-person singular, where they take the ending -s.So verbs with subjects like he, she, it, the girl, the short policeman and the grey thatched cottage take the -s ending, while first-and second-person, and third-person plural verbs with subjects like I, we, the young men, and you boys don't have a following -s.(Trudgill, 2004, p. 46) The statement above explains that the norm for gaining the addition of BM -s in the verb of the present tense is only for the third singular person, if BM -s is added to the FM except for the third-person singular it will be breaking the rules for constructing the BM -s which is called non-Standard English.The usage of non-Standard English is a way of building sentence improperly.And it can be stated that the usage of norms properly will show whether the person's speech can be said to be 'good' or 'bad'.(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 33) has pointed out that "having de facto norms refers to the feeling that many speakers have that there are both 'good' speakers and 'poor' speakers and that the good speakers represent the norms of proper usage".Additionally, from Trudgill's statement in Wardhaugh (2006), it can be concluded that standard language is used by persons who are not native speakers.As well, standard language is also usually used by well-educated persons when they are speaking.It indicates that person who uses the Standard English, grammatical language use, in his speech is perceived to be a good speaker, an educated person; on the contrary one who employs non-Standard English, i.e. is 'ungrammatical' in his language, is considered to be a poor speaker, an uneducated person.However, non-Standard English has been frequently used by Joko Widodo in his speech, such as found in data: 'a years ago', 'the picture show you', 'the subsidy we want to channel', etc.These samples of deviations should show the renowned Indonesian speaker at the APEC CEO Summit 2014 was a person regarded as a 'bad' speaker and hence should be an uneducated person, too.But, as a matter of fact, Joko Widodo is now the President of Indonesia, a very honorable and renowned person in Indonesia.Furthermore, he had good education since he graduated from the School of Forestry at Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.In other words, he is a well an educated person.
The deviations spoken by Joko Widodo using non-Standard English in his speech do not reflect what Trudgill in Wardhaugh (2006) has stated, that Standard English is the variety of English which is generally used both by non-native speaker and by educated persons.However, this renowned Indonesian non-native speaker is also an educated person, yet, he did not use Standard English in his speech to the APEC CEO Summit 2014 meeting.On the contrary, he used non-Standard English; with sentences not based on the rules (Fromkin et al., 2011, p. 128).Therefore, deviation from Standard English is identical with errors as explained by Khan and Arshad (2015), who see errors as deviations from a standard form of the language.
Grammatical deviation made by Joko Widodo in his speech according to my outlook occurred frequently and naturally in his speech, and even cannot be recognized by himself since the errors are perceived as a natural result that can hardly be avoided by non-native speaker like the President.Accordingly, maybe we should look at how and where the President learnt to speak English and whether that could explain why he used grammatical deviations when speaking English in public at the APEC CEO Summit 2014 held in Beijing, China.Although the President without a doubt had studied English during his Forestry studies at Gadjah Mada University, it is unlikely that he did not learn to speak English properly then.He probably first learnt to speak English for business survival purposes, when he was a businessman, during sales trips to France and Europe.Learning to speak English in such a way was probably the account for his propensity to speak broken English.

CONCLUSION
Grammar is one of the most important aspects for people who are using a language because language without proper grammar can cause a muddle and misunderstanding in communication such as grammatical deviation in speaking.Therefore, deviations, or errors in grammar, whilst speaking in public are not always produced by an uneducated speaker.It can be done by anyone even a highly educated, honorable and renowned person as well.Consequently, using non-Standard English grammar when speaking in public does not mean that the person should be categorized as a 'poor' speaker, such as President Jokowi when he was speaking at the 2014 APEC CEO Summit in Beijing, where he not only left off BMs on some LMs, but also had disorderly phrases in some of his sentences.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: A diagram of morpheme 'enlarges' (a) I was a businessman a years ago (b) The picture show you our map of Indonesia (c) We have 17 thousand island (d) A lot of investor when they come to me (e) But it stop 8 years ago (a)* … a years ago → a year ago (b)* The picture show → the picture shows (c)* … 17 thousand island → 17 thousand islands (d)* A lot of investor → a lot of investors (e)* … it stop 8 years ago → it stopped 8 years ago has made a systematic summary of deviation in his book 'A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry' in which he classifies deviations into eight types.